Grand Bazaar in Turkey: Istanbul's Historic Market

The Grand Bazaar holds a very special place in my life. My father, Nasuhî Küçükeren, a former officer, retired at a young age in 1960 and wanted to build a new life. At that time, to buy a small 2.25-square-meter shop in the Jewelers’ Market (Cevahir Bedesteni), my mother, Suzan Küçükeren, had to sell her gold bracelets, which were her wedding gifts. My father began his new career in jewelry with just a chair and a small case on a counter. Being a soldier by training, He didn’t know much about the trade. One day he came home and told my mother sadly, “I’m afraid I’ve lost all the capital.” He had no funds left, but fate was about to open a new door for them. One day, a villager brought him an ancient Roman coin. Without realizing its value, my father bought it. Soon after, he sold it to an American collector for a surprisingly good price. When he returned home, he said to my mother, “Perhaps a new door has opened for us.” That day changed the course of their lives. After turning forty, my father taught himself English and French. He imported books on numismatics (the study of coins) and, over the years, became one of Turkey’s leading numismatists. In 1967, he bought a Turkish-made Anadol car. In 1969, he took a tour across western Turkey. In 1970, he sent my eldest sister, Canan Küçükeren, who was then a young archaeologist, to England to improve her English. Soon after, he and my mother embarked on a month-long European road trip, traveling as far north as Finland, west to England, and southwest to Spain — an unforgettable journey in their lives. At that time, I had just finished my first year of primary school. Upon their return, my father told me, “After fifth grade, I’ll send you to the German High School.” And indeed, his wish came true. In 1974, three months after I started at the German High School, my father passed away in a car accident. His last wish had been fulfilled. That school became the turning point of my life. My father’s shop in the Grand Bazaar was rented for 900 dollars a month at that time. In 1980, we sold it for the equivalent of one kilo of gold. That is why the Grand Bazaar is not just an old market with narrow streets and stone walls for me. It is the heart of my father’s labor, my mother’s sacrifice, and our family’s history.

Construction and Historical Development

The Istanbul Grand Bazaar (Kapalıçarşı) is one of the world's largest and oldest covered markets. Built after the Ottoman conquest of Istanbul in the 15th century, the bazaar now resembles a vast labyrinth with over 4,000 shops spread across more than 60 covered streets, covering an area of over 30,000 square metres. With hundreds of thousands of visitors every day, the Grand Bazaar has not only been a shopping centre throughout history, but also the heart of Istanbul's commercial life. As part of efforts to increase economic prosperity during the Ottoman Empire, immediately after the conquest, Fatih Sultan Mehmed had a bedesten (the core of the Grand Bazaar) built in the city centre dedicated to textiles and jewellery. This initial structure was named the 'Cevahir Bedesten' (Inner Bazaar) and derived from the word 'bezestan', meaning cloth. Built during the reign of Fatih, this covered market corresponded to the area where some of the old marketplaces from the Byzantine era were located. In fact, some sources suggest that the Grand Bazaar was founded during the Byzantine era, but its current form was developed and expanded during the reign of Fatih. The Beyazıt-Nuruosmaniye line, on which the Grand Bazaar is located, was close to the lively market areas between the Byzantine Forum of Constantine and the Forum of Theodosius. Just a few years after the conquest, Mehmed II established the Grand Bazaar in this central location and began directing the trade of Ottoman Istanbul.

In addition to the first Bedesten, which was established in the second half of the 15th century, a second covered market building was constructed to accommodate the increasing volume of trade. This additional structure was named the 'Sandal Bedesten' and was likely built in the early 16th century (according to some sources, during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1540s). The Sandal Bazaar takes its name from a silk fabric woven in Bursa that was the colour of sandalwood. While the first Cevahir (Inner) Bazaar was dedicated to the trade of jewellery and valuable items, the Sandal Bazaar became a centre for textiles and fabrics. Initially, these two sturdy structures were isolated in their surroundings, with ruined church buildings and cisterns left over from the Byzantine era between them. However, the area around these two bedestens soon filled with shops and the surrounding streets became entirely dedicated to trade, forming a large bazaar district. By the early 17th century, the Grand Bazaar had reached its current boundaries and layout. Thanks to the Ottoman Empire's expansion across three continents and its control of land routes between Asia and Europe, the Grand Bazaar and the surrounding caravanserais became the commercial hub of the Mediterranean world.

The Grand Bazaar (Kapalıçarşı) in Istanbul is a historic market dating back to the 15th century. From above, its distinctive orange rooftops and domed structures form a maze of vibrant trade and culture — a must-see destination for every visitor.

During this period, the Grand Bazaar was renowned for the abundance, variety and quality of its products, and was considered to be unparalleled in Europe. Evliya Çelebi wrote that, in the mid-17th century, the bazaar comprised 67 streets, each dedicated to a specific craft or trade, as well as five mosques, seven fountains and 18 gates. He also states that approximately 3,000 shops were operating in the bazaar at that time, with an additional 300 or so located in surrounding inns. This suggests that one-tenth of all shops in Istanbul at that time were concentrated in the Grand Bazaar and its surroundings. Evliya Çelebi also praises the traditions of the Grand Bazaar, as well as the tradesmen's ethics and sense of order. He also notices a relief of a single-headed eagle above one of the Bedesten gates, attributing symbolic meaning to it. He noted that this relief dated back to the Byzantine period and interpreted the eagle with its wings spread as meaning, 'Profit and trade are like a wild bird; if you want to tame them with sweet words and kindness, the place to do so is the Bedesten'. This interesting anecdote suggests that, in the Ottoman mindset, the Grand Bazaar was considered a place where trade was civilised.

Throughout history, the Grand Bazaar has been shaken by disasters many times, but each time it has been repaired and continued its commercial life. Fires caused particularly severe damage in the 16^(th) and 17^(th) centuries. A series of fires began in 1515 and continued until 1701, including the great fires of 1588, 1618, 1645, 1652, 1658 and 1660, the latter of which reduced most of Istanbul to ashes. The 1701 fire was so severe that it reduced most of the bazaar to ashes. Following this disaster, during the reign of Sultan Mustafa II, Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha had the ruined parts of the bazaar repaired and rebuilt in the early 1700s. In accordance with a fire prevention regulation issued in 1696, the open spaces between the bedestans were covered with vaulted roofs. This connected the different parts of the Grand Bazaar, which was literally turned into a 'closed bazaar' by the dome and arch roof system. Once this process was complete, the bazaar acquired its current architectural appearance. Although fires continued to occur in the 18th century (in 1750 and 1791), the damage caused by the 1766 earthquake was repaired quickly.

View over the rooftops of the Grand Bazaar with the Nuruosmaniye Mosque in the background.

A traditional han courtyard inside the Grand Bazaar, decorated with a Turkish flag.

Stone-paved courtyard of a historic Ottoman han (inn) in Istanbul, with upper galleries, traditional

Crowded shopping corridor inside the Grand Bazaar with local shops and tourists.

Interior shot of the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul, featuring ornate arches and ceilings.

Grand Bazaar in Turkey: Architectural and Structural Features

The architecture of the Grand Bazaar resembles that of a small city, squeezed into an enclosed space. This complex structure consists of covered streets, passageways, han courtyards, bedestans and countless shops, all beneath domes and vaults. Stretching between the Fatih and Beyazıt districts of Istanbul, this large complex has historical gates on all four sides. It is said that today the bazaar has 21 entrance gates (historical sources mention 17–18 gates), which open early in the morning and are locked when the bazaar closes in the evening. In a sense, the Grand Bazaar is a city within a city, complete with its own mosque, prayer rooms, fountains, school, bathhouse and even a tomb. A census conducted in the 19th century recorded 4,399 shops, 2,195 workshops and studios, 497 stalls, 12 warehouses, 18 fountains, 12 small mosques, one large mosque, one primary school and one tomb within the bazaar. It is said that the number of businesses operating in the Grand Bazaar today is similar to these figures. Several bank branches, restaurants, cafeterias and tourist information offices catering to modern needs have also been added to the bazaar over time.

This is an interior photograph of the Grand Bazaar, taken in the 1890s. Narrow streets lined with shops stretch beneath domed vaults, with sunlight filtering through small windows.

The Grand Bazaar's most important architectural elements are the two Bedesten structures, which date back to the bazaar's founding period. The Inner Jewellery Bedesten (Old Bedesten) is located in the heart of the bazaar and takes the form of a large, domed, enclosed hall. Resembling a castle with its thick stone walls and heavy iron doors on all four sides, this structure dates back to the era of Fatih. The Bedesten's sturdy architecture is designed to safely store valuable items; in the past, all Bedesten doors were locked at night and guards were posted inside. For centuries, the Cevahir Bedesten has been the centre for buying and selling the Grand Bazaar's most valuable items, such as jewellery, gold, precious fabrics and antiques. Even today, some of the rarest pieces can still be found in the shops in this area, including antique copperware, old weapons, jewellery, collectible coins, calligraphy and handmade works of art. While it is said that the items on display in the Bedesten's showcases may not always be original 'historical artefacts', even the replicas produced are often of superior craftsmanship. This is because the craftsmen who make these fake antiques are often artisans from the same guilds, working with the same tools and techniques as their ancestors did centuries ago.

The Sandal Bedesten (also known as the New Bedesten) is the second largest structure in the Grand Bazaar and is located to the north of the Inner Bedesten. Like the Inner Bedesten, the Sandal Bedesten is a rectangular, domed structure. It has 12 thick pillars in the centre and is covered by 20 domes arranged in four rows. When it was first built, the Sandal Bedesten was at the heart of the silk and textile trade, while the Cevahir Bedesten was where precious jewels and antiques were sold. Over time, however, the Sandal Bedesten lost its former importance and was converted into an auction hall for carpet auctions in the early 20^(th) century. Today, the Sandal Bedesten is generally quiet and empty, only partially reviving its former bustling atmosphere on days when carpet auctions are held. This tranquillity makes it easier to appreciate the Sandal Bedesten's architectural details: the brick domes, arched galleries and small stage area (odeon-like platform) in the centre are particularly noteworthy.

The Grand Bazaar is generally laid out in the shape of a regular rectangle. Stretching between the Beyazıt (Bayezid) Mosque and the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, one end of the bazaar faces Beyazıt Square and the other faces Nuruosmaniye. The Nuruosmaniye Mosque, built in 1755 in the Baroque style, is an Ottoman mosque; the eastern entrance to the Grand Bazaar, Çarşıkapı, opens onto its courtyard. The row of shops built as part of the Nuruosmaniye Complex to generate income for the mosque's maintenance can still be seen today in the form of arched arcades that make up the outer surface of the Grand Bazaar. This is a beautiful example of how market structures and religious endowment works were intertwined in Ottoman architecture: the mosque's expenses were financed by rents from the market's shops, and the market expanded along the mosque's walls.

The covered streets of the Grand Bazaar generally have vaulted or domed ceilings. Natural light filters in through small openings in the ceilings and skylights at various points. The roof of the structure, especially above the bedestans, is adorned with countless small lead-covered domes and chimney-like outlets, giving the bazaar the appearance of a beehive when viewed from the outside. Inside the bazaar, there are domed spaces or openings where the streets intersect. The fronts of the small and large shops on both sides of each street are filled with bustling crowds at all hours of the day. People have shopped in the same way in these narrow streets for centuries: customers browse the stalls, select items they like and then sit on the shopkeeper's small stools to bargain over a cup of tea. Bargaining is an ancient tradition in the Grand Bazaar and is almost seen as a game or an art form. No seller expects the first price quoted to be accepted, nor does the buyer insist on their initial offer. Accompanied by pleasant conversation and hospitality, a reasonable price is agreed upon by all parties. Throughout history, the merchants of the Grand Bazaar have been one of Istanbul's most cosmopolitan groups. Many shop owners and employees were able to speak several foreign languages in order to communicate with customers from different countries, and even today, they know a little of the many languages spoken by tourists. In this respect, the Grand Bazaar has stood for centuries at the meeting point of East and West, local and global.

Guilds and the Fabric of Commercial Life

The guild system, or trade association, played a decisive role in organising the Grand Bazaar. During the Ottoman period, groups of artisans and merchants were organised into professional associations, or guilds. Similarly, each street or section of the Grand Bazaar was assigned to a specific trade guild. Indeed, many of the bazaar's street names originate from the tradesmen groups that have been active there for centuries. Examples include “Kuyumcular Sokağı” (Goldsmiths Street), 'Halıcılar Caddesi' (Carpet Makers Street), 'Kalpakçılar' (Cap Makers), 'Fesçiler' (Fez Makers), 'Yorgancılar' (Quilt Makers), 'Örtücüler' (Cover Makers) and 'Terlikçiler' (Slipper Makers) were the names of the guilds concentrated in those areas. Even the names of professions that have now disappeared live on in the bazaar: streets such as ‘Turtukcular’ (hat makers), ‘Aynacilar’ (mirror makers), ‘Takkeciler’ (turban makers) and ‘Agacilar’ (makers of the plumes worn by Janissary aghas during the Ottoman period) honour the memory of past craftsmen. Guilds were not merely spatial divisions, but also institutions that ensured harmony in commercial life. Each guild had a sheikh, or master craftsman, known as a kethüda, and the guild organisation was responsible for the education of artisans, from apprenticeship to mastery, as well as for quality control, pricing — via the narh system — and discipline. Rather than competition, cooperation prevailed within the bazaar. Certain rules prevented unfair competition among artisans doing the same work, ensuring that everyone could earn a living. Thanks to these traditions, the artisans of the Grand Bazaar gained a reputation for reliability and honesty.

During the Ottoman period, the range of goods sold in the Grand Bazaar was extremely diverse. Initially established for the trade of fabrics, textiles and jewellery, it gradually began to offer a wide range of goods, including carpets, spices, furs, copperware, calligraphic panels and valuable books. Located in Istanbul, the final stop on the silk and spice routes in the Mediterranean, the Grand Bazaar served as both a showcase for goods from across the empire and a sales centre for local production. Carpet sellers offered a wide range of products, including Hereke silk carpets and Central Asian kilims. Jewellery makers and goldsmiths were at the heart of Ottoman gold and silver craftsmanship, with handmade jewellery and gems adorning the shop windows. Although spice merchants were concentrated in the Spice Bazaar (a separate covered bazaar next to the New Mosque), there were also spice and herbalist shops in the Grand Bazaar. Antique dealers and shops selling rare goods offered valuable items from Ottoman nobles or the palace, European porcelain and rare carpets to enthusiasts. On the Kalpakçılar side of the bazaar, leatherworkers and hatmakers sold their wares, while on the Yorgancılar side, quilts, bedding and textiles were sold. In the Feraceciler or Çarşafçılar section, women's clothing and coverings were sold, and on the Zenneciler side, women's slippers and shoes were sold. In the Kavaflar section, men's shoes and boots were sold. This distribution reflected the guild system in the marketplace. Because merchants selling the same type of products were located together, buyers could easily find what they were looking for and compare prices. According to Evliya Çelebi, in the 17th century, the shops in the Grand Bazaar opened their shutters every morning with prayers, and the merchants began their day by reciting the besmele. When the call to prayer at noon sounded, there were small prayer areas (namazgahlar) within the bazaar where merchants could pray together before returning to their stalls. In the evening, a bell or a crier's call signalling “Paydos!” (meaning 'Closing time!'), the shops would close and the bazaar's massive wooden doors would be locked. These traditions reveal that the Grand Bazaar was a centre not only for material exchange, but also for social and cultural interaction.

A vibrant collection of traditional Turkish mosaic lamps hanging in a shop at the Grand Bazaar in Is

Stacks of colorful, handcrafted Turkish carpets inside a traditional carpet shop in the Grand Bazaar

A souvenir shop in the Grand Bazaar filled with musical instruments, decorative plates, chess sets,

A historical depiction of an Ottoman-era open-air market with men in traditional attire selling brea

The merchants of the Grand Bazaar were an important part of Istanbul's social fabric. Within the bazaar, merchants from various ethnic and religious groups, including Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Persians, Arabs and Levantines, worked alongside each other. Non-Muslim Ottoman citizens were particularly influential in the jewellery, carpet and antique trades: Armenian masters were renowned among jewellers, while Iranian merchants were prominent among carpet sellers. Thanks to this diversity, the Grand Bazaar was filled with conversations in every language, enriching Istanbul's culture through these interactions. The bazaar also played a central role in the city's public celebrations, such as festival parades and merchant processions. During major celebrations such as a sultan's accession to the throne or a prince's circumcision ceremony, for example, guilds held parades with decorated horses and banners, and the Kapalıçarşı merchants presented representations symbolising their professions at these ceremonies. In this way, the bazaar established itself in the lives of Istanbul's people not only as an economic institution, but also as a cultural one.

The Urban Fabric and Location are at the Heart of Commerce

Since its establishment, the Grand Bazaar has been at the heart of Istanbul's commercial landscape. Located in the heart of the historic peninsula, it is close to the palace and the seat of government, while also offering easy access to the city's ports and foreign trade points. During the Ottoman period, a trade corridor formed between Eminönü Pier and the Grand Bazaar. The covered markets near Beyazıt Mosque, where trade was concentrated, were connected to the docks and warehouses in Eminönü via a route called Mahmutpaşa Yokuşu. This enabled goods arriving by ship from overseas to be stored on the shore before being transported to the Grand Bazaar by horse-drawn cart or porter. Sixteenth-century travellers particularly emphasise that the Grand Bazaar was integrated into the Eminönü port area in this way, being at the heart of the city's trade circulation. At that time, there were multiple docks along the Eminönü coast, each specialising in the import of different products: For instance, Bahçekapı and Meydan docks were used to unload grain and provisions from Egypt, the Black Sea and the Aegean, while the Yemiş Dock was reserved for ships supplying the city with fruit and nuts. Odun Pier received wood and lumber shipments from Izmit and the Black Sea, and Unkapanı Pier was used by ships carrying grain from Crimea and the Balkans. The goods unloaded at these docks were sorted in nearby inns and warehouses, then distributed to the markets around the Grand Bazaar or delivered directly to buyers within the bazaar itself. Thus, the Grand Bazaar served as both a retail centre and a wholesale distribution hub. Even neighbourhood markets established in other districts of Istanbul, as well as merchants from Anatolia, took the Grand Bazaar as a reference point: prices and quality standards were set here and then reflected in other markets.

Another impact of the Grand Bazaar on the city is the dense urban life that has developed around it. The neighbourhoods surrounding the bazaar have historically been home to merchants, artisans, porters and traders. Right next to the bazaar, for example, Grand Vizier Mahmut Pasha had a complex consisting of a mosque, a bathhouse, a tomb and inns built in the 15^(th) century and named after himself. He also had a bazaar with 265 shops built around it. This area, known as the Mahmutpaşa Bazaar, is a bustling street market between the Grand Bazaar and Eminönü, and remains lively to this day. The neighbourhood has become one of Istanbul's busiest commercial areas, with a dense population. During the Ottoman period, inns, arcades and bazaar structures built by state officials in different parts of the city often gave rise to new neighbourhoods around them. People settled near their places of work, and over time a complete social environment emerged, complete with a mosque, a prayer room and a coffee house. Historians describe this phenomenon as 'Istanbul's growth around the bazaar'. Indeed, in the 18^(th) and 19^(th) centuries, the area around the Grand Bazaar retained its status as the city's financial centre. Coins minted by the Mint were put into circulation here by money changers, and transactions were made with bankers in Galata. Even serious lending transactions took place around the Grand Bazaar until the Ottoman Bank was established in the 1850s. The importance of the bazaar is also reflected in the names of the surrounding inns, such as Varakçı Han, Kürkçü Han, Bakırcı Han and Leblebici Han. These names indicate the guilds of artisans that were housed in these inns. These inns served as workshops, warehouses and caravanserais for visiting provincial merchants. This made the area around the Grand Bazaar a 24/7 hub: while shopping and manufacturing continued during the day, visiting merchants stayed in the inns at night and camels and horses waiting to transport goods rested in the courtyards. Within Istanbul's cosmopolitan structure, the Grand Bazaar was a meeting point for business relations between Muslim Turks and the non-Muslim population, as well as being a must-see stop for travellers coming from Europe. 19th -century travel writers described the Grand Bazaar at length in their depictions of Istanbul, noting its colourful scenes and crowded, noisy atmosphere. It was one of the first places to intrigue almost everyone who came to the city.

Historic interior shot of the Grand Bazaar's arched walkway, showing vendors and traditional product

Historic photo of a fabric shop in the Grand Bazaar with merchants sitting in front of hanging texti

Artistic drawing of the Grand Bazaar in Ottoman times, with merchants, carpets, and arched ceilings.

Old panoramic postcard of Constantinople showing the domes of the Grand Bazaar and nearby mosques.

Detailed illustrated map of the Grand Bazaar showing gates, hans (inns), and major shopping streets.

The Current Status and Importance of the Grand Bazaar

With a history spanning almost six centuries, the Grand Bazaar remains one of Istanbul's most popular tourist attractions. Despite undergoing repairs throughout its history, the complex retains the essence of 15th–18th-century Ottoman bazaar architecture, giving visitors the feeling of travelling through time. While the Grand Bazaar's commercial profile has evolved since the mid-20th century, with tourist items, jewellery, carpets and souvenirs becoming more prevalent than the daily shopping of the local population, the spirit of the bazaar endures. A study in the 1970s found that part of the Grand Bazaar's old 'Oriental' atmosphere had been lost due to mass tourism and mass-produced goods. Indeed, compared to a century ago, the shop windows are filled with more 'modern' commercial goods. Nevertheless, it is still possible to find many authentic local crafts in the Grand Bazaar, including antique dealers, hand-woven carpet sellers, silversmiths and calligraphers. Like a miniature model of Istanbul and the Ottoman heritage, the Grand Bazaar is unique in its architecture, street names, merchant traditions and living culture.

The Grand Bazaar is open six days a week (except Sundays) and attracts approximately 250,000–400,000 visitors every day. Its status as the world's most visited tourist attraction in 2014, with 91 million visitors annually, is no coincidence. Visitors don't just shop here; they also soak up the historic atmosphere beneath the domed roofs, chat with the merchants, sip tea and experience the art of bargaining. As you wander through the bazaar, you can quench your thirst at an Ottoman-era fountain and find tranquillity in the secluded corner of a mosque just a few steps away. If you feel tired, you can rest with a cup of Turkish coffee in a centuries-old coffeehouse. There's no need to fear getting lost while wandering its narrow streets — Istanbullus say that getting lost in the Grand Bazaar is part of the fun, because sooner or later you'll find yourself outside through a door and back in civilisation. The bazaar is full of stories: families who have worked in the same shop for generations, artisans who have passed their craft from father to son, street vendors who sell simit at the same corner every morning, lovers who open their handkerchiefs and tell stories, and guides who show tourists the way. All of these human scenes form the vibrant mosaic of the Grand Bazaar.

In recent years, extensive restoration work has been carried out in the Grand Bazaar and its physical infrastructure renewed. As part of a project that began in 2016, the roof has been repaired and reinforced in a manner that is consistent with its historical features. This has eliminated the accumulated moisture and wear, with the aim of ensuring that future generations can also benefit from this heritage. Alongside the restoration work, improvements are being made to security and cleanliness, and fire prevention systems are being modernised. All these efforts are aimed at preserving and sustaining the Grand Bazaar as a World Heritage Site.

In conclusion, the Grand Bazaar is more than just a shopping venue; it is a living museum that reflects the history, architecture and social life of Istanbul. Founded by Fatih Sultan Mehmed, supported by Ottoman sultans and viziers, and rebuilt after surviving numerous fires and earthquakes, the bazaar continues to captivate visitors to this day. As you wander through its centuries-old corridors, you will notice traces of history in the stones beneath your feet, as well as the craftsmanship of its former masters in the surrounding domes and arches. The merchant culture, a legacy of the guild tradition, greets you with smiles and pleasant voices. This enclosed world of Istanbul is like a mysterious treasure chest, carrying the trade ethics, aesthetic understanding and urban culture of a vast empire into the present day. The Grand Bazaar lives on as an eternal bazaar, combining the legacy of the past with the vibrancy of the present.

Bibliography

1. Önder Kaya, History of Istanbul: The 2500-Year Story of the Capital of Empires. Kronik Books, 2024.

– The establishment of the Grand Bazaar during the Ottoman period; commercial structures; the Mahmutpaşa line; the Eminönü docks; earthquakes and fires; and their relationship with the urban fabric.

2. Hilary Sumner-Boyd & John Freely, Strolling Through Istanbul: The Classic Guide to the City. I.B. Tauris / Bloomsbury, 2010.

– “Through the Markets and Bazaar” section: the architecture of the Grand Bazaar, its covered markets, guild streets, its 20th-century transformation, and references to Evliya Çelebi.

3. Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme: Istanbul Section (various editions).

– Streets, shops, guilds, daily life, and symbolic narratives in the Grand Bazaar.

4. Halil İnalcık, State, Law, and Economy in the Ottoman Empire. Türkiye İş Bankası Cultural Publications.

– Historical framework on the guild system, the organization of bazaars within cities, and the management of commercial life.

5. Doğan Kuban, Ottoman Architecture. Yapı Kredi Publications.

– The architectural structure of the Grand Bazaar, the planning of the bedestans, and the relationship between the külliye and the bazaar.